By Professor Wu Heng, translated
by Harold L.K. Siu, Chinese Art (Taipei: Youth Cultural Enterprises
Co., Ltd., 1985).
Introduction
The origin
of Chinese writing can be traced back to ancient China, although we are
not certain of the date of its invention. According to reliable
reference books, Chinese writing has at least a history of four
thousand years. It is generally believed that people made records by
tying a knot in a rope. This way of recording was replaced by the
invention of words by Tsang Chie.
We cannot
assume that there were no written words before Tsang Chie. Tsang only
combined the invented words of his predecessors with slight changes. At
the same time, there was still another inventor called Chu Sung.
Nonetheless,
the fact that Chinese written words originated in painting is beyond
doubt. That is why modern Chinese consider writing and painting to have
the same origin.
Meanwhile,
the invention of words represents the insufficiency of spoken language.
As an instrument, they describe and keep various events and have
meanings. Words precede writing; they are the mother of writing.
Because of the passing of time, the evolution of human culture, and the
needs of daily life, the writing style evolved from easy to complex.
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Briefing the Origin and Evolution of Chinese
Writing Style
China had
Oracle-Bone Inscriptions in the Shang Dynasty (1766-1122 B.C.), then
Big Seal Script in the Chou Dynasty ( 1122-221 BC). It is believed that
Big Seal Script was created by one of the ranking officials in the Chou
Dynasty while studying history ("chun"), so the writing style is also
called Chun Writing. In the Chin Dynasty (221-206 BC), there came Small
Seal Script. Although it was originally created by Premier Lee Ssu and
historians Chao Kao and Hu Mu-chin through three separate pieces of
writings, people generally refer to it as the "Writing of Lee".
In the Han
Dynasty ( 206 B.C.-221A.D.), the Old Li Writing emerged. It was
originally created by a calligrapher-turned-prisoner named Cheng Miao.
Only during the following Wei (221-265 A.D.) and Jin (265-420 AD)
dynasties did the Modern Li Writing emerge. It was also during this
period of time that Free Writing (Tsao Shu) and Block Writing (Kai Shu
or Text Characters) emerged. Although Block Writing was originally
created by a person named Wang Tzu-chung in Peiping (today's Beijing),
its system was not completed until Chung Yiao, a famous calligrapher,
in the Wei Dynasty.
During the
Five Dynasties period (907-959 AD), Running Characters (Hsing Shu) was
created by a famous calligrapher from the Later Han Dynasty (947-950
AD). It has had little variation from then on.
The
following is a more detailed introduction regarding the evolution of
Chinese writing style.
1. Oracle-Bone Inscriptions
At the dawn
of Chinese civilization, people were primitive and ignorant. They were
very superstitious and wondered at everything in the universe. Before
they acted on anything, they would consult fortunetellers. As spoken
language was insufficient, words were invented and engraved with sharp
objects on the back of tortoise shells and the bones of beasts, so that
what happened before and after the consultancy could be recorded.
In the Ching
Dynasty (1644-1911A.D.), some of these ancient shells and bones were
dug up accidentally by farmers in Hunan Province. Unaware of their
importance, these farmers mistook them for medicine and had them sold.
It is fortunate that a scholar named Liu Eh (Liu Tie-yun) eventually
came to regard them as precious relics of our ancestors. Gradually,
this discovery was made known all over the country. Through the
research of scholars such as Wang Kao-wei, Lo Cheng-yu and Sun Yi-rang,
these oracle-bone inscriptions were proved to be the language of the
Shang Dynasty. Since they were dug up in the ruin of the Shang (or Yin)
Dynasty, people also refer to them as the Yin Writing. Their writing
style is regarded as the earliest one in Chinese history.
2. Writing on Bells and Containers
This kind of
writing is usually engraved on metal and bronze bells, which is why it
is also called "Metal Writing" or "Old Writing". It has its own style,
which is slightly different from that of Small Seal Script. Thus the
two representative writing styles at the Shang and Chou dynasties are
Oracle-Bone Inscriptions and Bell Writing respectively. The purpose of
the former style was to record events; most of its writings were
concerned with the prophecies of fortunetellers. The latter style was
used for worshiping, therefore had a sense of beauty involved.
Supporting evidences of this can be found in the National Palace
Museum, Taipei, where many ancient vessels, containers, jade and
various kinds of antiquity are well preserved.
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3. Chun Writing and Stone and Drum Writing
One of the
ranking officials of the Chou Dynasty created the Chun Writing while
studying history. At that time, every word had several forms and
several pronunciations. The official unified these variations and thus
contributed greatly to the unification of Chinese writing style. Only
until the Chin Dynasty was the Chun Writing called Big Seal Script.
Stone and
Drum Writing (Chun Writing engraved on stones that shaped like drums)
spread over the country and is still used even today. Its content is
primarily concerned with god-worshiping.
4. Small Seal Script (Writing of Lee, or Chin
Writing)
Lee Ssu
(Premier of the Chin Dynasty), Chao Kao and Hu Mu-chin adopted Big Seal
Script and changed it into Small Seal Script after the unification of
the six warring states by the dynasty's first emperor, Chin Shih-huang.
Because the languages of these six states varied in form and
pronunciation, the emperor ordered the "standardization of language".
Hence came Small Seal Script, the product of this order.
This is the
second reform in the unification of Chinese writing style. It was not
only a contribution to Chinese writing style but also a promotion of
close relationship between different peoples. The area of China is
immense, thus the unification of language could save the nation from
splitting up.
5. Li Writing
Li Writing
is the current style of Chinese writing. At the beginning of the Chin
Dynasty, people were in favor of (Small) Seal Script, but it was hard
to write. Then there came a famous calligrapher named Cheng Miao, who
was put in prison due to some false charges. He recalled that when he
served as a government official, administrative affairs were often
complicated enough, not to mention the difficulty of dealing with them
in Seal Script style. He therefore decided to reform it. After years of
research, he finished amending three thousand words and effected the
birth of Li Writing (the character "li" refers to slaves or prisoners).
It is a style that is much more convenient to use.
This is the
third reform in Chinese writing style. People promoted this
improvement, and the style became popular throughout the nation. Its
convenience in using saved a lot of precious time for generations to
come.
6. Block Writing (Kai Shu, or Text Characters)
Block
Writing is also called Real Writing or Formal Writing. At the beginning
of the Han Dynasty, Wang Tze-chung formalized Li Writing and made it
distinctive from other styles. This is the fourth revolution in Chinese
writing style. Due to its convenience most people adopted it.
In the Wei
and Jin dynasties, a calligrapher named Chung Yiao advocated Wang's
formalized Li Writing. Chung's "Congratulation Report" is widely known.
His writing style was further developed and adopted throughout the
nation, and has become the mother of today's Block Writing. This is the
fifth reform in Chinese writing style.
7. Running Characters (Hsing Shu)
According to
historical sources, Running Characters were initiated by Liu Teh-sheng
of the Later Han Dynasty. This writing style is somewhere between Block
Writing and Free Writing. It is called Hsing Shu because it resembles
the walking of a person (the character "hsing" means walking). It is
very convenient to use.
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8. Free Writing (Tsao Shu)
Free
writing, according to some scholars, was originally created by Shih
Yiou of the Han Dynasty. He created it because he was in a hurry of
writing something. Other scholars, however, are convinced that Free
Writing was created in an even earlier period of time. A kind of
ancient script written with brushes made of grass, for example, was
believed to be the origin of the writing style.
Scholars
throughout Chinese history had different views in this. For instance,
Hu Shen said: "Free Writing arose during the prosperity of the Han
Dynasty." Tsai Yung remarked: "During the power struggle among
different provinces in the Chin Dynasty, messages and letters were
exchanged promptly. The difficult (Small) Seal Script could hardly meet
the urgent needs in battles. The writing style created on the spur of
the moment then is what we call Free Writing now." Furthermore, while
Chiang Shih questioned "Who knows the origin of Free Writing?", Wei
Heng reported that "I know not the name of the (original) writer".
Therefore, the invention and origin of Free Writing is still a matter
of controversy.
In sum, most
scholars seem to have agreed that Free Writing is a sort of draft
writing. The fact that this writing style was inspired by daily (and
often urgent) necessities is beyond doubt. Two calligraphers of the Han
Dynasty, Tsui Yuan and Tu Du, were good at Free Writing. Because of the
then emperor's fondness and praise, this writing style became popular
and was practiced by all social classes. The emperor even made it an
official writing style.
There is
another kind of Free Writing, which was initiated by Chang Chih, a
calligrapher of the Eastern Han Dynasty. His strokes go right to the
end with only occasional breaks, which is what is referred to today as
"broken stroke with continuous meaning". It is also called Modern Free
Writing.
During the
Wei and Jin dynasties, Wang Hsi-chih and his son Wang Hsien-chih,
together with other calligraphers such as Huang Hsiang and Sou Ching,
excelled in Free Writing. They were famous at the time and throughout
the history, and their time was the golden age of this writing style.
In the Tang
Dynasty, Chang Hsu (also known as Chang Po-kao) was an expert in Free
Writing. His writing was unrestrained and graceful, allowing him to
give vent to his pent-up feelings and energy. His resolve was lofty,
and he sought to transcend the mundane. He especially loved to drink;
when ever he became drunk, he shouted wildly and so indulged in writing
that he was reported to have blackened the water in a pond from much
practice. According to one source, the so-called "Wild Free Writing"
got its name because of Chang. He was therefore named the "Sage of Free
Writing" by scholars of coming generations.
In
Chang's time, Huai Su, a monk, was also a great calligrapher in Free
Writing.
9. Standard Free Writing
Standard
Free Writing was created by Yu Yo-ren, the late President of Republic
of China's Control Yuan. He collected and examined through works of
famous Free Writing calligraphers throughout the history, and
eventually established a complete system that standardizes and unifies
all writings in the style. He also created many new words and symbols
for the style.
Yu set up
four guiding principles in creating and appreciating works of Free
Writing. Namely, the words have to be easy to recognize, easy to write,
accurate and beautiful. Following these principles, Yu created numerous
wonderful works in the hope of making calligraphy in general a popular
art for everyone to enjoy. He also expected his system to save time and
energy for generations to come. This is the sixth reform in Chinese
writing style. It is hoped that people who are interested in this field
may advance and improve his work.
Conclusion
In
conclusion, the origin and evolution of Chinese writing style can be
summarized into the following points:
In
its long history of scriptural evolution and refinement, Chinese
calligraphy was practiced within a strict framework and governed by
restrictive rules. What has been discussed here is the general
knowledge of its
disciplines for non-Chinese readers rather than a teaching guide for
beginners.
For beginners, one-one-one
direction is essential
as in any other forms of visual art. Anyone who teaches himself may
technically walk into a wrong course and the mistake may be hard to
correct later.
The training of Chinese calligraphy always begins with copying a model.
Through the lengthy annals of Chinese calligraphy, master calligraphers
set fascinating examples in its disciplines and the expressions,
lending a shoulder for later generation to start. To copy from a model
is focused on stroke patterns - the structure of characters and the
execution of brushwork. The technique of master calligraphers varies
from style to style; however, understanding one style will shed light
on others.
There was only hard hair brush in
ancient China, and
papers were generally sized to prevent bleeding. The common brushes for
Chinese calligraphy today are combined with goat hair, and the paper
popular with beginners is semi-absorbent rice paper. Calligraphers
usually don't change their choices often once they find something
fitting.
